Russia

34. On Poland’s foreign service in the critical period of the late seventeenth century, see A. Kaminsky, Republic vs. Autocracy: Poland-Lithuania and Russia 1686—1697 (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), which demonstrates the amateurishness of Polish diplomacy by contrast to Russia’s. See also my review in American Historical Review, December 1995, pp. 1622—3.

35. I. Kozlovskii, Pervye pochty i pervye pochtmeistery v Moskovskom gosudarstve, vol. 1 (Warsaw, 1913), pp. 86-7.

36. See L. Hughes, Sophia, Regent of Russia 1657-1704 (New Haven, 1990), pp. 43-5 and generally on the period 1676-89.

37. Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, p. 71.

38. Veselovskii, D’iaki i pod’iachie xv—xvii vv, pp. 203, 45—6, 531—2. See also Chistiakova, Rogozhin et al., (Oko vsei velikoi Rossii’ on Ivanov (pp. 92-108) and pp. 108ff. on Matveyev and Golitsyn.

8: PETER THE GREAT AND THE BREAKTHROUGH

TO THE WEST

1. Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 2, p. 343 (with adaptation).

2. On the first campaign of the Swedish war, see Frost, The Northern Wars, pp. 229ff.; D. Kirby, Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period: The Baltic World, 1492-1772 (London, 1990), pp. 299ff.

3. For the early, as well as the later, history of St Petersburg, see J. Bater, St Petersburg: Industrialization and Change (London, 1976).

4. G. Adlerfelt, The Military History of Charles XII (3 vols., London, 1740), vol. 3, pp. 197, 235.

5. Kirby, Northern Europe in the Early Modern Period, p. 325. The terms were interesting in that, in trying to prevent Russia interfering in Swedish affairs, the treaty also insisted that Russia prevent any change to Sweden’s 1720 constitution or the succession to the throne, which gave Russia a legal reason to interfere.

6. N. N. Molchaninov, Diplomatiia Petra Velikogo (Moscow, 1986).

7. E. Schuyler, Peter the Great (2 vols., London, 1884), vol. 2, p. 478.

8. Ibid., pp. 238-39 (revised).

9. On the Khiva expedition, see T. Barrett, At the Edge of Empire: The Terek Cossacks and the North Caucasus Frontier 1700-1860 (Boulder, 1999), p. 31; on Peter’s strategy in Central Asia, A. Donnelly, The Russian Conquest of Bashkiriya 1552—1840 (New Haven, 1968), ch. 4 and its references.

10. Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, p. 7.

11. M. Olcott, The Kazakhs (Stanford, 1995), p. 30.

12. J. Bell (of Antermony), Travels from St Petersburgh in Russia to Diverse Parts of Asia (2nd edn, London, 1764), vol. 1, pp. 132—316, and vol. 2, pp. 1—155.

13. Coxe, Russian Discoveries, pp. 442-45; for an account of the China negotiations see the account by de Lange, the embassy’s secretary, in Bell, Travels from St Petersburgh, vol. 2, pp. 166ff.

14. Schuyler, Peter the Great, vol. 2, p. 593.

15. Khodarkovsky, Russia’s Steppe Frontier, pp. 159, 161-2.

16. Vernadsky et al., Source Book, vol. 2, p. 345.

17. S. Krashennikov, The History of Kamschatka and the Kurilski Islands (Glocester [sic], 1764), pp. 224, 172, 176, 202, 224; Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, p. 101.

18. Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, pp. 137, 139.

19. Coxe, Russian Discoveries, p. 22.

20. R. Fisher, ed., The Voyage of Semen Dezhnev, pp. 257-72 for maps illustrating how understanding of the geography of north-eastern Siberia developed. Also Forsyth, A History of the Peoples of Siberia, p. 101.

21. See P. Longworth ‘Ukraine: history and nationality’, Slavonic and East European Review, 78, 1 (January 2000), pp. 115-24.

22. Kappeler, Russland als Vielvolkerreich, esp. p. 69.

23. See E. Thaden, Russia’s Western Borderlands 1710-1870 (Princeton, 1984), pp. 7-14.

24. Rywkin, ed., Russian Colonial Expansion, p. xv.

25. Schuyler, Peter the Great, vol. 2, p. 464.